And Do You Locke, Take Thee Hughes? Essay

In a comparison of the essays â€Å"The New Negro† by Alain Locke and â€Å"The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain† by Langston Hughes, there exists both similarities and differences. But, what are most striking are the differences between the two, especially in terms of purpose, tone, and audience. Locke and Hughes wrote their essays during the heart of the Harlem Renaissance; 1925 and 1926, respectively. Both men were writing from that vantage point, and with a gaze set firmly on bettering the conditions of those they held in common – the Negro. But these similarities are, in a sense, superficial. After all, there were many writers in that era – any era really – both Black and White, who felt a moral imperative to right the racial wrongs of their time; to wring justice from the cloth of unwarranted suffering. The differences between Locke and Hughes, however, serve as a model; one that illustrates a chasm between the ideas and opinions of that era in terms of how to better their people, as well as why their condition is such that it needs tending. In â€Å"The New Negro,† Locke is saying that the so-called New Negro is already here – in fact, has been here for some time. And, by extension, he’s arguing for the integration – even assimilation – of Blacks into the larger pool that is America. This sentiment is expressed rather poignantly when he says, â€Å"The fiction is that the life of the races is separate, and increasingly so. The fact is that they have touched too closely at the unfavorable and too lightly at the favorable levels.† (20) And it is further strengthened when he says, â€Å"We realize that we cannot be undone without America’s undoing.† (22) That statement holds equally true if one were to rearrange it to read, â€Å"America cannot be undone without our undoing.† Locke has, whether happily or not, acknowledged that the Negro race – for better or for worse, and until death do they part – is indeed married to America. Thus, he is advocating for integration as a means of survival as much as a means of advancement. Hughes, on the other hand, seems to champion the cause of racial distinction insofar as the Negro should be proud to be a Negro. This desire is laid bare when he says, â€Å"But, to my mind, it is the duty of the younger Negro artist†¦ to change through the force of his art that old whispering ‘I want to be White,’†¦ to ‘Why should I want to be white? I am a Negro – and beautiful.’† (28) Perhaps Hughes, too, would acknowledge a state of matrimony between the Negro race and America. But where he seems to diverge from Locke is in his almost visceral advocacy for the spouses’ maintenance of their own identities within that marriage. With Locke, although he doesn’t use the metaphor â€Å"racial mountain† in his essay, it is apparent that such an impediment exists. His path forward – whether to the top of that mountain or around it – lies in fostering meaningful relationships between the elites of both major races. This is expressed when he says, â€Å"†¦more immediate hope rests in the revaluation by white and black alike of the Negro in terms of his artistic endowments and cultural contributions, past and prospective.† (24) And, more eloquently when he says, â€Å"He now becomes a conscious contributor and lays aside the status of a beneficiary and ward for that of a collaborator and participant in American civilization.† (24) Returning to the marriage analogy, these sentiments politely convey a sense of frustration, perhaps not unlike what many married women in that time period felt; a sense of, â€Å"I’m not feckless or helpless, and I needn’t be a ward or beneficiary; I’m sturdy and bright and equal to any task that’s laid before me; I just need the space and resource to prove it!† For Hughes, conquering the mountain is to be accomplished using a tack different from that of Locke. In Hughes’s world, victory for the Negro hinges on a tempered dissociation from the white race; not to showcase or inflame racial differences, but to highlight the unique, distinct, and high-minded attributes of his own race. In other words, the Negro should be proud of his culture and his race; the Negro is a corollary to, and a parallel of, the American body, and not merely one ingredient in a larger amalgam. As a stepping stone to accomplishing this, Hughes argues that the fabrication of the â€Å"racial mountain† is due largely to the misguided deeds of his own people – the middle-class Negro in particular. This stance is taken from the outset of his essay when chides the young Negro poet for having said, â€Å"I want to be a poet – not a Negro poet.† (25) To Hughes, such a sentiment is tantamount to wanting to be white. He goes on to say, â€Å"The road for the serious black artist, then, who would produce a racial art is most certainly rocky and the mountain is high.† (27) If one operates under the assumption that Hughes makes his case, then it can logically be said that â€Å"wanting to be white† is tantamount to denial both of â€Å"who we are† and â€Å"where we’ve been.† And that’s the rub; how can an artist be true to him or herself if they don’t even know who they are? And worse, how can they ever hope to elevate their position as a people if, by attempting to do so, they give up their very identity by hewing to the strictures of the White world? Let us not forget, â€Å"An artist must be free to choose what he does, certainly, but he must also never be afraid to do what he must choose.† (29) In terms of their respective tones, there are marked differences between Locke and Hughes. While both are persuasive in nature, Locke’s tone comes across as somehow intimate, and yet fairly matter-of-fact. Whether backed by hard truths or not, he lays out his case in such a manner. He also comes across as subtly – even warmly – patronizing; a confidant or cohort who’s merely guiding his readers to the truth. This can be seen when he says, â€Å"But while the minds of most of us†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"Recall how suddenly the Negro spirituals revealed themselves†¦Ã¢â‚¬  His tone is like a proverbial â€Å"arm around the shoulder† and an invitation to the obvious. Hughes on the other hand is more visceral, coming across as chiding, cajoling, and cynical. Whether warranted or a fabrication of his own mind, he bursts from the gates with a thesis statement that doubles as a heavy accusation – that in wanting to be a poet, and not a Negro poet, the young man actually meant that he wanted to be white. And he leaves no room for discussion on the matter; in his mind, it is settled. He continues with this tone when he describes what he believes is â€Å"a fairly typical home of the colored middle class.† (25) And this belief – as far as any evidence offered in his essay – is predicated on no more than this one young Negro poet. He goes on to charge that â€Å"the word white comes to be unconsciously a symbol of all virtues. It holds for the children beauty, morality, and money. The whisper of ‘I want to be white’ runs silently through their minds.† (25) Locke and Hughes are also appealing – at least in part – to different audiences. Locke, while certainly writing to the Black community at large, is deliberate in his inclusion of Whites. This inclusion, in fact, is necessary for his argument to work; his argument for integration. He even addresses those who are undoubtedly white in the beginning of his essay when he says, â€Å"The Sociologist, the Philanthropist†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (17) And he leaves no doubt as to white inclusion in his audience when he says, â€Å"But while the minds of most of us, black and white†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (17) Hughes’s appeal is to the Black community at large too. But it is aimed more at the black elites, the black artists, and the black middle class far more than it is at whites. This is apparent when he cajoles the black artist by saying, â€Å"†¦it is the duty of the younger Negro artist†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (28) And it is clear when he condemns the â€Å"prominent Negro clubwoman† for paying eleven dollars to see a white singer while dismissing â€Å"a great black artist† as â€Å"that woman.† (27) Regardless of the differences in style – purpose, tone, and audience – both of these essays have merit and hold power in their respective goals, which, for the most part are one in the same: to improve the Negro’s standing within the American marriage. Works Cited Locke, Alain. â€Å"The New Negro.† Course Reader, English 1B. Ed. Kelly Vogel. Fall 2012. Print. Hughes, Langston. â€Å"The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain.† Course Reader, English 1B. Ed. Kelly Vogel. Fall 2012. Print.

Analysis Dangerous Corner

Theater is one of the best means of art and entertainment, which brings cultural enrichment. It uses live performers on stage to express different plays. From the times of its appearance theater has changed a lot. There were especially many transformations in modern times. The only genres seen in the theater of ancient times were tragedy and comedy, whereas nowadays there are lots of contemporary genres and styles. Even the types of theaters vary from classical to musical lines.People have always liked visiting theaters for relaxing, entertaining and just having a good time. Our country has lots of theaters to offer to its citizens. Everyone can find something suitable for their tastes. People who like dramas go to drama theatres, those who like musical plays can visit opera theaters, so there is always a choice where to go. The theater can be divided into two parts: one is the stage where actors perform their roles, the other is the hall where spectators sit. The hall and the stage are separated by a curtain and orchestra.Besides, every theater has a cloak-room and a restaurant. Theatres may vary a lot in sizes. Some can host only 50 people, and some are meant for thousands of spectators. For example, the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow can host about 2150 people. The other huge and world-famous theaters are Metropolitan Opera and Broadway Theater in New York, Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Theater La Scala in Italy, Covent Garden in London and several others.Richard Cumberland (19 February 1732 – 7 May 1811) was an English dramatist and civil servant. In 1771 his hit play The West Indian was first staged. During the American War of Independence he acted as a secret negotiator with Spain in an effort to secure a peace agreement between the two nations. He also edited a short-lived critical journal called The London Review (1809). His plays are often remembered for their sympathetic depiction of colonial characters and others generally considered to be margins of society. Calypso (1779)The Natural Son (1785), in which Major O'Flaherty who had already figured in The West-Indian, makes his reappearance The Country Attorney (1787) The Impostors (1789), a comedy of intrigue The School for Widows (1789) The Box-Lobby Challenge (1794), a protracted farce The Jew (1794), a drama, highly effective when the great German actor Theodor Dà ¶ring played â€Å"Sheva† The Wheel of Fortune (1795), in which John Philip Kemble found a celebrated part in the misanthropist Penruddock, who cannot forget but learns to forgive (a character declared by August von Kotzebue to have been stolen from his MenschenhBen Jonson (Benjamin Jonson /ˈdÊ’É’nsÉ™n/; c. 11 June 1572 – 6 August 1637) was a playwright, poet, and literary critic of the seventeenth century, whose artistry exerted a lasting impact upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours. He is best known for thesatirical plays Every Man in His Humour (159 8), Volpone, or The Foxe (1605), The Alchemist (1610), and Bartholomew Fayre: A Comedy (1614), and for his lyric poetry; he is generally regarded as the second most important English dramatist, after William Shakespeare, during the reign of James I.[1]The literary artist Ben Jonson was a classically-educated, well-read, and cultured man of the English Renaissance with an appetite for controversy (personal and political, artistic and intellectual) whose cultural influence was of unparalleled breadth upon the playwrights and the poets of theJacobean era (1603–1625) and of the Caroline era (1625–1642).[2][3] Plays[edit]A Tale of a Tub, comedy (c. 1596 revised? performed 1633; printed 1640) The Isle of Dogs, comedy (1597, with Thomas Nashe; lost) The Case is Altered, comedy (c. 1597–98; printed 1609), with Henry Porter and Anthony Munday? Every Man in His Humour, comedy (performed 1598; printed 1601) Every Man out of His Humour, comedy ( performed 1599; printed 1600 ) Cynthia's Revels (performed 1600; printed 1601)The Poetaster, comedy (performed 1601; printed 1602) Sejanus His Fall, tragedy (performed 1603; printed 1605) Eastward Ho, comedy (performed and printed 1605), a collaboration with John Marston and George Chapman Volpone, comedy (c. 1605–06; printed 1607) Epicoene, or the Silent Woman, comedy (performed 1609; printed 1616) The Alchemist, comedy (performed 1610; printed 1612) Catiline His Conspiracy, tragedy (performed and printed 1611) Bartholomew Fair, comedy (performed 31 October 1614; printed 1631) The Devil is an Ass, comedy (performed 1616; printed 1631) The Staple of News, comedy (performed Feb. 1626; printed 1631) The New Inn, or The Light Heart, comedy (licensed 19 January 1629; printed 1631) The Magnetic Lady, or Humors Reconciled, comedy (licensed 12 October 1632; printed 1641) The Sad Shepherd, pastoral (c. 1637, printed 1641), unfinished Mortimer his Fall, history (printed 1641), a fragmentAdolphe Philippe d'Ennery or Dennery (17 June 1811 – 25 January 1899) was a French Jewish dramatist and novelist. Contents [hide] 1 Biography 2 Works 3 References 4 External linksBiography Born in Paris, his real surname was Philippe. He obtained his first success in collaboration with Charles Desnoyer in Émile, ou le fils d'un pair de France (1831), a drama which was the first of a series of some two hundred pieces written alone or in collaboration with other dramatists. He died in Paris in 1899. Works[edit]Among the best of his works are Gaspard Hauser (1838) with Anicet Bourgeois; Les Bohà ©miens de Paris (1842) with Eugà ¨ne Grange; with Mallian, Marie-Jeanne, ou la femme du peuple (1845), in which Madame Dorval obtained a great success; La Case d'Oncle Tom (1853); and Les Deux Orphelines (1875), perhaps his best piece, with Eugà ¨ne Cormon. The story was adapted in 1921 by D.W. Griffith as the film Orphans of the Storm.He wrote the libretto for Gounod's Le tribut de Zamora (1881); with Lou is Gallet and Édouard Blau he composed the libretto to Massenet's Le Cid (1885); and, again in collaboration with Cormon, the librettos of Auber's operas, Le premier jour de bonheur (1868) and Reved'amour (1869). Other opera librettos include La rose de Terone (1840), Si j'à ©tais roi (1852), Le muletier de Tolà ¨de(1854) (on which Michael Balfe's The Rose of Castille (1857) was based), and À Clichy (1854) by Adolphe Adam, Massenet's early Don Cà ©sar de Bazan (1872) and Hervà ©'s La nuit aux soufflets(1884) He prepared for the stage Balzac's posthumous comedy Mercadet ou le faiseur, presented at the Thà ©Ãƒ ¢tre du Gymnase Marie Bell in 1851. Reversing the usual order of procedure, d'Ennery adapted some of his plays to the form of novels. Etan Cohen (born March 14, 1974) is an American screenwriter.Contents1 Life and career 2 Filmography 3 References 4 External linksLife and careerBorn in Israel to an Orthodox Jewish family,[1][2] Cohen grew up in Efrat and Sharon, Mas sachusetts. He graduated from the Maimonides School and Harvard College, where he wrote for theHarvard Lampoon. His first produced scripts, in 1995 and 1997, were for Beavis and Butthead, where he was credited as Ethan Cohen.[3] He has since written for other Mike Judge-directed projects, including King of the Hill from 2001 to 2005, and for the feature film Idiocracy in 2006. In the late 1990s he worked on two other television series – the animated Recess and the short lived It's Like You Know.After scripting Idiocracy he worked on the hit animated series, American Dad and wrote the episode, â€Å"Failure Is Not a Factory-Installed Option†. The American Dad minor character of the same name is named for him. In 2008, Cohen cowrote, along with Ben Stiller and Justin Theroux, the action-comedy film Tropic Thunder. He also wrote Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa. Columbia Pictures hired Etan Cohen to pen the script for Men in Black 3. Other projects he is currently writing incl ude feature films, Candy Land, The Fiance and Project A. On July 10, 2012 it was announced that Cohen is currently writing the script for Ghostbusters3.FilmographyBeavis and Butt-head (1995–1997) Recess (1999) It's Like, You Know (1999) King of the Hill (2001–2005) Idiocracy (2006) American Dad (2006) My Wife Is Retarded (2007) (also directed) Tropic Thunder (2008) Harvey Richards (2008) Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa (2008) Men in Black 3 (2012)TravellingAlmost all people are fond of travelling. It is very interesting to see new places, another towns and countries. People may travel either for pleasure or on business. There are various means of travelling. For me there is nothing like travel by air; it is more comfortable, more convenient and, of course, far quicker than any other means. There is none of the dust and dirt of a railway or car journey, none of the trouble of changing from train to steamer and then to another train. With a train you have speed, comfort and pleasure combined.From the comfortable seat of a railway carriage you have a splendid view of the whole countryside. If you are hungry, you can have a meal in the dining-car; and if a journey is a long one you can have a wonderful bed in a sleeper. Travelling by ship is also very popular now. It is very pleasant to feel the deck of the ship under the feet, to see the rise and fall of the waves, to feel the fresh sea wind blowing in the face and hear the cry of the seagulls. Many people like to travel by car. It is interesting too, because you can see many sights in a short time, you can stop when and where you like, you do not have to buy tickets or carry your suitcases. A very popular means of travelling is hiking. It is travelling on foot. Walking tours are very interesting. Hitch-hiking is a very popular method of travelling among young people. But it is not as popular in our country as abroad.TravellingModern life is impossible without travelling. Thousands of people travel ever y day either on business or for pleasure. They can travel by air, by rail, by sea or by road. Of course, travelling by air is the fastest and the most convenient way, but it is the most expensive too. Travelling by train is slower than by plane, but it has its advantages. You can see much more interesting places of the country you are travelling through. Modern trains have very comfortable seats. There are also sleeping cars and dining cars which make even the longest journey enjoyable. Speed, comfort and safety are the main advantages of trains and planes. That is why many people prefer them to all other means.Travelling by sea is very popular. Large ships and small river boats can visit foreign countries and differentplaces of interest within their own country. As for me, I prefer travelling by car. I think it’s very convenient. You needn’t reserve tour tickets. You needn’t carry heavy suitcases. You can stop wherever you wish, and spend at any place as much t ime as you like. Every year my friend and I go somewhere to the South for holidays. The Black Sea is one of the most wonderful places which attracts holiday-makers all over the world.There are many rest-homes, sanatoriums and tourist camps there. But it is also possible to rent a room or a furnished house for a couple of weeks there. Sometimes, we can place ourselves in a tent on the sea shore enjoying fresh air and the sun all day long. As a rule, I make new friends there. In the day-time we play volleyball, tennis, swim in the warm water of the sea and sunbathe In the evening I like to sit on the beach watching the sea and enjoying the sunset. I’m fond of mountaineering. So I do a lot of climbing together with my friends. Time passes quickly and soon we have to make our way back. We return home sunburnt and full of impressions.Travelling People on our planet can't live without travelling now. Tourism has become a highly developed business. There are express trains, cars and jet-air liners all of that provide you with comfort and security. What choice to make? It's up to you to decide. There is a great variety of choice available for you. Those who live in the country like going to a big city, visiting museums and art galleries, looking at shop windows and dining at exotic restaurants. City-dwellers usually like acquired holiday by the sea or in the mountains.Most travelers carry a camera with them and take pictures of everything that interests them — the sights of a city, old churches, castles, mountains,  lakes, waterfalls, forests, trees, flowers and plants, animals and birds. Later, perhaps years later, they will be reminded by the photos of the happy times they have had. If you travel for pleasure you would like all means to enjoy picturesque areas you are passing through, you would like to see the places of interest in the cities, towns and countries.Travelling gives us a good opportunity to see wonderful monuments, cultural and historic al places, to learn a lot about the history of the country you visit, about the world around us, to meet people of different nationalities, to learn a lot about their traditions, customs, culture. In other words, you will broaden your mind. Nowadays people travel not only for pleasure but also on business. You have to go to other countries to take part in different negotiations, to sign contacts, to participate in different exhibitions, in order to push the goods produced by your firm or company Ð ¾ Travelling on business helps you to get more information about achievements of other companies » which will make your own business more successful.There are a lot of means of travelling: by sea, by plane, by car, on foot. Tastes differ. That is why it is up to you to decide which means of travelling you would prefer. All means of travelling have their advantages and disadvantages. And people choose one according to their plans. No wonder that one of the latest means of travelling is t ravelling by plane. It combines both comfort and speed and you will reach the place of destination very quickly. Before boarding the plane you must check in at the airport. You are required to have your baggage weighed. Each passenger is allowed 20 kilograms of baggage free of charge. But if your baggage is heavier you must pay an extra charge. Before the plane takes off the stewardess gives you all the information about the flight, the speed and altitude.She asks you to fasten the belts and not to smoke. She will take care of you during the flight and will help you to get comfortable in your seat. Inside the cabins the air is always fresh and warm. During the flight you can take a nap or have a chat, you can read and relax. In some planes you can watch video or listen to the music. When the plane is landing or taking off you have an opportunity to enjoy the wonderful scenery and landscapes. While travelling by plane you fly past various villages and cities at the sight of which rea lize how majestic and tremendous our planet is. No doubt, travelling by air is the most convenient and comfortable means of travelling. But if you are airsick the flight may  seem not so nice to you. Unfortunately sometimes the flights are delayed because of unfavourable weather conditions, and one more inconvenience is jet-lag. Youth problemsYouth is a beautiful time. The faces of young people, the young souls and young love – everything is beautiful. We can describe all the amazing attractions of this only period in life, which is usually remembered during all lifetime, but many youngsters say that their life is followed by numerous troubles. Really, there is no life without problems, but we can’t make little account of youth problems. Unfortunately, most of the problems are connected with family relations. Moms and dads say that teenage rebels just growing up normal. Their parents said it, just as parents say it today. â€Å"Damn kids these days†. This phra se is the fad of the adults of all times.To my mind, each new generation of kids receives negative reviews because of two entwined social dynamics: surliness and rebellion in youth; fear and loathing by parents, whose youth has passed them by. It's called the generation gap, which pits the impertinence of youth against the attitudes of people over 30, who forget what a pain in the butt they were as kids. If you look at history, youth has always looked bad from the adult perspective. Sometimes it's because they don’t remember all the stupid, dangerous things they did as kids. Adults always tend to glorify their own past. It explains the reason why they often look down their noses at the next generations.Basically, what these critical adults are saying is, â€Å"why can't these kids be like us.† It is amazing, but every generation goes through this. I’m deeply convinced tat if some parents are ready to write off the next generation, they should remember how they b ehaved as young teenagers and recognize rebellion as a sign of growing up. But we should admit, there are some dangerous temptations of the youth and only parents can preserve their children from such social evil as alcohol, smoking and even early sex and killing oneself by using drugs. For example, the former Soviet Union admitted that it had over 200,000 drug addicts. Because of this the government opened several special hospitals for these addicts. There's a big anti-drugs campaign in the country's schools too. Usually drugs come from several places including Western Europe and Afghanistan.Also, some addicts use glue or steal medical drugs from hospitals. This problem is  closely connected with gang-violence. As well as gangs of punks, rockers and hippies, there are ultra conservative gangs, too. They want to stop â€Å"the dangerous† influence of teenage culture in our country. But actually they follow the ideas of nationalism and even fascism. One more acute problem fo r many young people is smoking. Millions of teenagers know it's bad for them, but they still do it. I think it is rather easy to withstand the influence of those who smoke. We should be simply strong enough to say â€Å"no†.Many people offer their way out. Some of them say that teenagers should not be let to the discos because of the danger of drugs; others say that young people should be given more money and more freedom, because everything that is forbidden astonishes. But in my opinion, one thing is clear: after decades of silence in the Soviet Union we face a lot of urgent problem, which should be solved as soon as it is possible. Youth ProblemsToday it is fashionable to speak about teenage broblems. A few years ago alcohol, fights, murders and other kinds of violence were more problems of adults rather than young people. But now, as official reports admit, violence, AIDS, drugs and alcohol are more and more associated with youngest. For many children from poor families v iolence, drinking problems and all that is associated with powerty becomes more and more real. The Government surveys show that every fifth teenager who was arrested for criminal actions, was younger that 14 and couldn't be sent to prison. Almost half of teenagers have an experience with drugs, alcohol and sex under age of 16.A lot of teenagers who have drug or alcohol addiction almost never believe that they are dependent. These things are often combined with family and school problems. What has gone wrong? Some specialists explain that the changes of our society, the system of our life force young people to choose their own lifestyle. On the one hand, our society agrees that 15-17-years old people are old enough to be responsible for what they do and gives them quite a lot of freedom and rights. On the other hand, most adults think that teenagers are too young to be taken seriously. This misunderstaning has produced many problems. Actually, a lot of teenagers say that their parent s let them do anything they want and are quite indifferent to their problems.Many teenagers get upset or depressed when they can't solve their problems. As a result, it makes them believe that there is only one way out – to stop  living and commit suicide. No doubt, the teens' problems will increase. And young people should feeel that they are cared about. Ð ¢Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã ¸Ã º Ð ¿Ã ¾ Ð °Ã ½Ã ³Ã »Ã ¸Ã ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ¼Ã'Æ' ‘Problems of the youth' Youth is a very important period in the life of a human being. This is the time when a person discovers the world and tries to determine his place in the universe. Young people face a great deal of problems which are very important for them. They do not differ much from those that once their parents had to deal with. At the same time every generation is unique. The adults always say that young are not always what they were.Yong people of today don't directly accept the standards of their parents. They cannot accept the values of their â€Å"fathers†. It is one of the causes of the generation gap. The adults usually apply old standards to the new way of life. The majority of the young people don't want to live in the past. They have their own ideals. They want to make their own mistakes, rather, than to listen to the warning of their parents. Almost all parents don't understand their children. The next important problem concerns friendship. A person can and should have many friends. But at the same time there can be only one or two true friends. However, the young people always face the problem of getting on with people, especially, their class-mates. The problem of love is a key problem as well.There are a lot of different problems, which youth have to face. Relations between Ukraine and the European Union (EU) are currently shaped via the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), a foreign policy instrument of the EU designed for the countries it borders. The EU is seeking an increasingly clos e relationship with Ukraine, going beyond cooperation, to gradual economic integration and deepening of political cooperation.Ukraine is said to be a priority partner within the ENP.[1] In 2012, the EU signed deals on free trade and political association with Ukraine; however EU leaders have stated that these agreements will not be ratified unless Ukraine addresses concerns over a â€Å"stark deterioration of democracy and the rule of law†, including the imprisonment of Yulia Tymoshenkoand Yuriy Lutsenko in 2011 and 2012.[2][3][4][nb 1] On 25 February 2013, the EU set a three-month deadline for Ukraine to carry out the required changes to its justice and electoral systems in order to enable the formal signing of their agreements with the EU in Vilnius on 29 November 2013.Though Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych urged the parliament to adopt laws so that Ukraine would meet the  EU's criteria,[7][8][nb 2] all six motions on allowing Tymoshenko to receive medical treatment abroad were rejected by Ukraine's Parliament on 21 November 2013 and the same day a Ukrainian government decree suspended preparations for signing the association agreement, endangering the formal signing scheduled for a week later.[10][11] However, the same day Yanukovych stated â€Å"an alternative for European integration does not exist†.President Yanukovych still attended the 28–29 November 2013 EU summit in Vilnius, where the Association Agreement was originally planned to be signed, but the agreement was not signed. However, on 29 November 2013 President of the European Commission Josà © Manuel Barroso reiterated that EU's offer to Ukraine in terms of signing an Association Agreement remained on the table. The decision to put off signing the association agreement lead to massive, ongoing protests in Ukraine. Youth Organizations in Great BritainYouth and youth movement have become important factors in the life of the country. Numerous youth organizations have be en formed since the Second World War, uniting young people from all classes and sections of the population. There are about 60 youth organizations in Great Britain. Youth Council, which represents the youth of the country both nationally and internationally. All youth organizations can be divided into three large groups:1. non-political organizations; 2. youth organizations associated with political parties; 3. youth organizations controlled by religious bodies.The two largest non-political youth organizations are the associations of the Boy Scouts and the Girl Guides. There are about 1300000 boys and girls in them. The membership is voluntary. The Scout Association was formed in 1908 by General Baden Powell. His idea was to train boys in mapping, signaling, knotting, first aid and all the skills that would arise from camping and outdoor activities. Most important of all for a Scout was to make a promise that he would do his best to do his duty to. God and the Queen, to help other p eople and to obey the Scout Law. The Boy Scouts had a left-handed handshake, a special badge and the motto â€Å"Be Prepared†.The Scout Law embraces â€Å"honour, obedience, cheerfulness, thrift and cleanliness in thought  and deed. The Scout movement was intended for boys from 11 to 14 (15), but in 1916 Baden Powell introduced a programme for younger people. He called them Wolf Cubs. They had special uniforms, badges, a special training system and the motto â€Å"Do your best!†. The Wolf Cub pack is based on Kipling's â€Å"Jungle Book† about learning to survive. The Girl Guides Association was founded by Baden Pawell in 1910. It's divided into three sections: Brownies (from 7.5 to 11), Guides (from 11 to 16), Rangers (from 16 to 21). The programme of training is planned to develop intelligence and practical skills including cookery, needlework, childcare.Like a Scout a Girl Guide must be a friend to animals. The Girl Guides Association has extensive interna tional links. There are some other non-political organizations: the Combined Cadet Force, Sea Cadet Corps, the Woodcraft Folk, the Youth Hostels Association, the National Federation of Young Farmers Clubs, Greenpeace. Youth Organization Greenpeace deals with most urgent ecological problems. It protests against nuclear weapon tests, sea and soil pollution, etc. Sport clubs are characteristic youth organizations in the UK. They unite people who are interested in baseball, football, golf, etc.There also exist interest clubs. You can attend any club: From theatre to bird-watching clubs. By the way, birdwatching clubs are very popular in Great Britain. There are several youth organizations associated with political parties. The Youth Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (YCND) unites young people and organizes mass rallies and meetings, demonstrations, marches of protest, festivals. It co-operates with the National Union of Students. Religious young organizations and groups aim at helping to elderly people or working in hospitals.There are even groups where young people help released prisoners to start then life a-new. Religious organizations pay attention not only to the study of religious views but involve youth into such activities as music festivals and amateur theatre. As you see, all there organizations aim at preserving and strengthening the social and political system existing in the country. Many of them have done and still are doing useful work in providing leisure facilities for young English people.YOUTH ORGANIZATIONS IN GREAT BRITAINThere are numerous different youth organisations in Great Britain. Some are large and some are small, some nation-wide and some local. Probably the  largest are the Boy Scouts and the Girl Guides Associations, and the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) and the YWCA (Young Women's Christian Association), or simply â€Å"Y† for short. The Boy Scouts and the Girl Guides are for school-age teen-agers and the YMCA and the YWCA are for school leavers, college students, and young people who had already started working.Boy Scouts and Girl Guides have to do one good deed every day, to develop themselves mentally and physically. In summer they go camping in tents with everything done by young people themselves. At the YMCA and the YWCA more attention is paid to sport and different social events, such as outing in the country, dances, debates, amateur activities, etc.

A proposal for conducting a business research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A for conducting a business - Research Proposal Example Majority of organizations that operate in this industry are mostly concerned with their marketing strategies in order to establish their physical evidence and make it look convincing in front of their customers (Wong & Kwan, 2001). Nonetheless, what they fail to recognize is that the market is becoming sensitive both in terms of quality and price at the same time (Collier & Gregory, 1995). Therefore, organizations, in particular hotels, have to make sure that that they keep control over the price that they charge and at the same time maintain a superior quality of service (Kandampully & Suhartanto, 2000). This is precisely because the pricing strategy and its complementation with the quality of service provided by hotels is a key determinant of the extent to which customers is satisfied (Yelkur & DaCosta, 2001). The satisfaction index of customers in turn becomes a fundamental determinant of the hotel’s success and sustainability. The price factor is considered to be one of the strongest weapons in the arsenal of hotel managers as far as implementing a proper strategy based on this factor in order to increase market share is concerned (Whitla, Walters & Davies, 2007). This is precisely because this variable is intrinsically flexible, can be quickly modified and have a direct association with profitability. According to a survey conducted by Srinivasan, Popkowski Leszczyc & Bass (2000), price was regarded extremely important by nearly 72% of the respondents and was ranked third amongst the fundamental factors of marketing. According to the comments made by Chen and McMillan (1992), the likelihood for matching response is much higher for in case of price reductions, be it an aggressive pricing strategy or deterring pricing strategy. Nevertheless the impact of both these strategies is still contentious. It is with regards to this fact that the

CONTEMPORARY VISUAL CULTURE MAJOR ESSAY Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

CONTEMPORARY VISUAL CULTURE MAJOR - Essay Example 46-57). Kjell (1999, pp. 115-128) and Pointon (1994, pp. 25-33) state that these works are simply a reflection of the society’s view by analysing how the women portrayed in film relate to the broader historical context, the stereotypes depicted, the extent to which the women are shown as active or passive beings and the amount of screen time given to them. The early works of Marjorie Rosen and Molly Haskell on representation of women in film was part of a movement to make depictions of women more realistic both in documentaries and narrative cinema. According to Armstrong and Catherine (2006, pp. 23-34), the growing female presence in the film industry was seen as a positive step towards realisation of this goal by drawing attention to feminist issues and putting forth alternatives and more true to life views of women. However, these images are still meditated by the same factors in the tradition film such as moving camera, composition, editing, lighting and all varieties of sound (Barnet 1993, pp. 45-51; Pointon 1994, pp. 25-33). It is important to acknowledge the value of inserting positive representation of women in film but real change would only be realised by considering the role of film in society from the semiotic point of view. It is important to understand the role of women as defined by the male gaze is central to understanding the position of women in society (Armstrong and Catherine 2006, pp. 23-34). A woman’s position in social stratification is defined by her outward manifestation and thus a person is identified first by their gender (Kjell 1999, pp. 115-128). The film is a major form of visual popular culture and it is associated with visual representations and the gaze (Barnet 1993, pp. 45-51). In film, the gaze is basically the outlook of the camera (Kjell 1999, pp. 115-128). The gaze can be used as a powerful discourse because the outlook of the camera fosters identification with the audience. Armstrong and Catherine

Racism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Racism - Essay Example Patterns of racism keep transforming over time and a more universal definition of racism is "Prejudice or discrimination by one group toward others perceived as a different 'race', plus the power to enforce it." Groups of students may be almost identical physiologically, yet be divided against each other on the basis of culture, language, religion, nationality, or any combination of the above which is not an uncommon experience in schools. Teachers tend to pay more attention to "white" students in the group because subconsciously they relate "white" to etiquette, opulence and high society even though it might not always be true. Prolonged influence of racialised opinions from families and society in general results in preconceived notion which shows up as an attitudinal bias. Whatever the roots of racism may be, it tends to perpetuate itself. A group of students are defined as "lesser" and denied access to resources, then the results of such denial is used to justify defining them as "lesser." "Racism" is never shrugged off. For example, when a White Georgetown Law School student reported earlier this year that black students are not as qualified as White students, it set off a booming, national controversy about "racism." The dogma has logical consequences that are profoundly important. If blacks, for example, are equal to Whites in every way, what accounts for their poverty, criminality, and dissipation Since any theory of racial differences has been outlawed, the only possible explanation for black failure is White racism. And since blacks are markedly poor, crime-prone, and dissipated, the global society must be racked with pervasive racism because nothing else could be keeping them in such an abject state. Racialisation is not a natural concept, rather it was born and perpetuated within the society and the feeling of "color-bias" has been passing over along with genetic material over the generations ever-since. It is argued by socio-biologists and some schools of psychoanalysis that our instincts are programmed to hate those different to us by evolutionary and developmental mechanisms. As the world is turning into a global village, the inter-mixing of cultures is inevitable; hence, the population of children with a mixed ethnicity is on a rise. Racial identity becomes more a matter of concern than it was ever before and the new generation is not paranoid about accepting and even experimenting with different cultural factors like language, food, music and attire. This has been aptly demonstrated in Helen Wullff's research ( South London, 1980) on inter-racial friendships in which a group of teenage girls from different and mixed cultural backgrounds were observed for relationships and p eer acceptance and bonding. On the other hand, any scan of urban or suburban school districts and classrooms will demonstrate that students are still kept unequal along racialized lines; private conversations between teachers, administrators or students clearly demonstrate that race does still factor in to how people treat, fear and relate to each other. It is virtually impossible to fix racial inequality and improve race relations without talking

Early Modernism and Art Nouveau - A Comparison Essay

Early Modernism and Art Nouveau - A Comparison - Essay Example The essay "Early Modernism and Art Nouveau - A Comparison" compares two movements of art and architect. Architecture is on such sphere of human activity that though discernibly has utilitarian objectives, also tends to be a pivotal medium of human expression. Architecture is also an art form whose scope and nature is directly susceptible to the times in which it is placed, responding pragmatically and aesthetically to the raw materials in vogue and the primary social and artistic concerns of the generation of which it tends to be a product of. Taking architecture in the context of time, early Modernism and Art Nouveau happen to be two important movements in the sphere of art and architecture. In an academic perspective, it will be immensely enlightening to dissect the essentials of these two art movements in a comparative context. Within the realm of architecture, early Modernism was primarily associated with the simplification of form. It primarily relied for the accrual of ornament al appeal, on the theme and structure of the intended structure. Early Modernism initiated its nascent reverberations during the start of the twentieth century. It was directly influenced by the times of its genesis in the sense that it attempted to respond to the ensuing modernization of society and the accompanying technological developments. It would not be wrong to say that early Modernism tried to reconcile the principles of architecture to the two aforementioned trends. Early modernism borrowed themes from varied architectural styles.

How motivation can affect employees' commitment and performance at Essay

How motivation can affect employees' commitment and performance at work - Essay Example Motivation is a weapon – if used correctly. It is a fact within the domains of an organization that motivation brings out the best within the employees and offers the organization a host of incentives and longstanding results.On the flip side, lack of motivation means that the organization would lose out on this count and the work processes would get delayed as a result of the same. There is a good amount of evidence available which suggests that motivation must come out in the open and bring out the best time and time again so that the employees are on their toes all the time, and that success must be achieved when it is most desired, i.e., always. Researchers have long studied and analyzed upon the fact as to how motivation has been the key in finding out the unique points within the working ideologies of the organizations, and how these have been the basis of incentives and benefits for the sake of the business processes in the very end. This paper identifies how motivation can be used to full extent within an organization and how employees must put their foot down and achieve the very best on a proactive basis.The encouragement is indeed the motivation that one has, which is either derived from his own self (self-motivation) or by embedding the same through his co-workers or top management realms. Here an effort has been made to incorporate as many real life examples as possible to bring the best results in the open. Motivation is central to the premise of employee performance within a management scenario. This is because motivation can be the cornerstone of success or the lack thereof if seen within the correct perspectives. Motivation is intrinsic to an employee as it asks of him to give his best in both the trying circumstances as well as the better off ones. It asks of the organizational top domains to encourage and motivate their own employees so that they could offer the best and thus do the same time and again. This is a very essential aspect of understanding how motivation comes about in full circle, and how important a role it plays within the global dynamics of business performance and the attached commitment that is a part of the same (Geen 1994). In essence, motivation is central to any productive undertaking that employees ask of their own selves. What this means is the fact that commitment must remain supreme at the end of the day as this will derive performance and get the best out of the employees on a consistent basis. If performance has to be tapped, the best way in which the same could be done is to find out how motivated the employees are and how well they will shape up within the changing times and scenarios. Motivation is central to the premise of a positive change – a change which is more helpful for the organization as it brings in value in the name of commitment and ultimate performance. A few pertinent theories that pinpoint the role of motivation within the lives of the employees are significan t to mention and understand here. One such theory is the Theory of Needs coined by Abraham Maslow which takes a deep look at how people’s attitudes and behaviors are shaped up, both within their personal life domains as well as at work. Maslow stated that the most important needs for a person to remain motivated are when he receives the most basic necessities of life. These include the housing, clothing and food intakes that he acquires. After these needs have been properly met, he goes after looking for employment and interacting with the people that live around him. After the same have been fulfilled, he can now go ahead and acquire societal needs of being praised within the different norms of the society that he lives within. This is indeed regarded as the need to be taken as a respectable person. The self-esteem needs are therefore important and thus lead one towards the self-actualization requirements where a person wants to explore new things and

The Truman Show Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Truman Show - Essay Example The unsuspecting protagonist, who has no idea that everything around him and everyone around him are just behaving the way they are supposed or told to, gives the story a fresh appeal. As the story progresses, each stage if it makes the audience think what would they do if they were in Truman’s place. It makes people wonder what his reaction would be in the end when he finds out about the truth. Even his mother, wife and best friend are part of it so that makes his situation really pathetic. The people whom a person trusts most in the world are all in the plot of filming his life. The world he thinks is real is only make-believe. But then soon he starts picking up clues. He starts discovering the repetitive events have more than habitual meaning to them. Bit by bit he starts to think that he is being set up and he tests things one by one to try and unravel the truth. Although Truman trusts his logic to escape from a scripted world, Can Truman force reality since he was living in Seahaven Island for his entire life? Truman has been living twenty nine years of his life in Seahaven and has not yet come across anything that would force him to think out of the ordinary. He works as an insurance salesman, has a lovely wife who is happy always and has a best friend who was with him since he was seven years old. The town is also a dream come true, very neat with everyone smiling at each other and greeting them with sheer respect. The only incident that is seen to be haunting Truman is the death of his father, which took place when they went for sailing when he was a kid. He feels guilty for this incident as it was his curiosity and stubbornness that took him on the trip during the storm. This incident still lingers in him and he has developed hydrophobia. Even though his whole life is â€Å"broadcast 24 hours a day† he has no idea about it. (Weschler 1) That is until one day, a light projector falls from the supposed beautiful, normal sky. Soon more event s start adding up to it, like the time when he drives and he can hear on the radio every turn that he takes, when he goes to his office he finds that inside the lift there is a TV set etc. He even starts to understand that there is more to the things that happen around him than just everyday routine. When he sits in the car and watches from the mirror the order in which the man with the cycle, the man with the flowers etc keep passing here and there and when he takes his wife on a spontaneous ride the traffic just magically appears. The most surprising fact is that everyone knows Truman’s name, are very courteous and ready to help him with anything. He starts to figure out gradually that his life has been set up. He resolves to get away from Seahaven but everything comes in his way. It is like he has no way to escape from that place. He tries talking to his wife and friend but they too behave as though nothing his wrong. But Truman feels it in his guts that everyone is hiding something from him. Chritsof is the creator of this TV show. The man who has invested and spent millions to make a show like this, with the so-called intention of creating a safe world for his corporation adopted son Truman. He can be perceived as God as he is the one who controls everyone and everything in Truman’s life. He is the one who decides and chooses for Truman. All that Truman has to do is get up everyday and go to sleep every night, the rest is controlled by â€Å"the creator.† On one hand, Christof can be seen as a devil who controls

Charles Gains Conceptualism in Los Angeles Essay

Charles Gains Conceptualism in Los Angeles - Essay Example Ever since the 1960s2, when art in Los Angeles was defined by the introduction of abstract depictions, conceptualization has grown steadily amongst artists. Previous, one sees many faces in painting3 which had led to modernism by themed-nineteenth century. In conceptualization, the focus is on using abstract modes of expression to depict materials that we see around us in daily life, in an all new way. The main advantage of having such an art form was that lovers of art got a new perspective to look at nature and things around them. The perspective was believed to be initially impressionistic. Greenberg in his work Towards a Newer Laocoon, historically delineates how art has been evolving to become â€Å"pure† in its â€Å"medium† and in doing so it must retain the paint and the canvas for what it is and only convey sensation. Once this prescription has been satisfied the painter has achieved the â€Å"medium† of abstract art. Clark’s interpretation of Gre enberg’s Towards a Newer Laocoon, sparks a heated debate between him and Michael Fried. Clark argues that Greenberg is historicizing in his writing and ignoring that art is a reflection of the artist social environment. Formalism should not be the only thing accounted for in a painting but content as well. Artistic standards in history go hand in hand with social practice, which is evident in nineteenth-century Romantics. According to Clement Greenberg (1982), official painting and art forms were set to take a backseat in new forms of artistic depiction. Greenberg argues that if an artwork can be interpreted and agreed upon to be representative of a specific â€Å"situation† or â€Å" object†, then it is merely an imitation rather than a medium. Art (paintings and sculptures) in the 17th and 18th century was directly imitating literature, and so literature being the medium- art was just an illusion of literature.

Company Law and director incapacity Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Company Law and director incapacity - Case Study Example There is no magic formula utilized by the courts in determining whether to pierce the corporate veil or not. In our present case, the directors of W&H Ltd namely Jean, Lynette, Lauren and Ryan own a quarter of the company's issued shares each. This company's main activity is providing management services to other organisations. Three of the four directors were not satisfied with the profitability index of the company and they attributed this to the incapacity of the other director. During the course of rendering management services to a foreign company, these three directors decided to form a new company. Accordingly, Jean, Lynette and Lauren formed the new company, LJM Ltd in which they were the directors as well as the shareholders. The LJM Ltd was incorporated. W&H Ltd had the entire infrastructure such as training facilities and equipment to fulfil the prospective contract. In a board meeting of W&H Ltd, it was resolved that W&H Ltd would sell its assets and stock to LJM Ltd at less than the market value. Subsequently, W&H Ltd became insolvent and the liquidation process was initiated. The Companies' Act 1985 and the Insolvency Act of 1986 has laid down certain provisions for considering the fiduciary duties and responsibilities of Directors and the circumstances under which the courts will pierce the veil of the incorporation. An incorporated company is a legal person or entity and the assets and liabilities of the company are not that of its shareholders or directors and the acts of the members are not the acts of the company. This fundamental principle is established in the case of Salomon v Salomon & Co1. In this case, Salomon a leather merchant formed a company in which his wife and five children were the shareholders with each of them owning a share and the remaining shares were held by him. According to the Companies Act of that time, the minimum shareholders required to form a company were seven. After incorporating the company his liability had become limited. Subsequently the company went into liquidation. The court of Appeal held that the shareholding was not bonafide but contrived to favour Salomon. However, the House of Lords reversed this decision and held that Salomon was liable only to a limited extent and Lord Mc Naghten elaborated that the company and its promoters are different. Further, a company cannot be described as an agent of its shareholders providing clear evidence that the company is acting as an agent of its shareholders in a particular transaction. The property of a company does not belong to its shareholders. From this, it can be concluded that a company has a separate legal existence from its members and directors. Corporate veil implies that the incorporation of a company raises a separate legal liability in the company, which is different from that of its directors and shareholders. From this, it is evident that the creditors cannot recover the debt from the directors directly because they cannot pierce the corporate veil. The application of the Salomon principle has mostly beneficial effects for

Describe marketing situations in which the use of qualitative research methods would be appropriate Essay Example for Free

Describe marketing situations in which the use of qualitative research methods would be appropriate Essay Describe marketing situations in which the use of qualitative research methods would be appropriate. According to Zikmund, Ward, Lowe, Winzar, Babin Qualitative research is a methodology that elaborate interpretations of phenomenal of interest without depending on numerical measurement ( Zikmund, Ward, Lowe, Winzar, Babin, 2011, pg 65 ) . It is characterised by its aims, which relate to understanding some aspect of social life, and it’s methods which generate words, rather than numbers, as data for analysis ( Patton, Cochrain, 2002 ) . In terms of marketing situations, qualitative research methods are appropriate to be used when the organization root for new product idea generation and development, strength and weaknesses of products/ brands and studying emotions and attitudes on societal and public affairs issues (qrca. org). To maximize understanding on the situation, there are two qualitative research methods that can be consider is Focus Groups and Questionnaires. With these methods, we identify the benefits as well as limitations of using these research methods. Focus groups can be define as an unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group of people ( Zikmund, Ward, Lowe, Winzar, Babin, 2011, p71) . An approximately 60 to 90 minute discussion is led by a trained moderator with 8 to 12 relatively homogenous but unacquainted individuals who are brought together to discuss a specific topic ( Gunn, 2004) . Focus groups allow people to discuss their feelings, anxieties and frustrations, as well as the depth of their convictions, in their own words ( Zikmund, Ward, Lowe, Winzar, Babin, 2011, p72 ) . The benefits of focus groups can be presented for an in-depth exploration of new ideas, opinions, perceptions, and reactions to concepts and messaging. Focus groups often serve as exploratory research to assist survey design of subsequent quantitative research methods. Similarly, they can also be useful in validating and/ or clarifying results garnered from previous quantitative research and can be use to elicit â€Å" in their own words descriptions of products, services or issues being discussed. Conferences and other events present relatively low-cost opportunities to conduct focus groups with target audiences. There tend to be few interviewer effects on dialog because individuals tend to be influenced more by the group discussion than by the moderator. Participants are usually enthusiastic and spontaneous in their responses and groups tend to naturally cover more questions, opinions and comments than researchers could have anticipated. The disadvantage of the focus group however shows that the results from focus groups are qualitative and nonprojectable to larger populations. They require well-trained moderators to manage discussions, maintain focus, and minimize affects of the personalities and behaviours of individual participants on others and/or the entire group. Logistical and cost considerations include room and food set-up, and incentives are typically needed to encourage response. Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in qualitative research, because they commonly require subjects to respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not acting naturally. However, they have their uses, especially as a means of collecting information from a wider sample than can be reached by personal interview. Though the information is necessarily more limited, it can still be very useful. For example, where certain clearly defined facts or opinions have been identified by more qualitative methods, a questionnaire can explore how generally these apply, if that is a matter of interest. Ideally, there would then be a qualitative check on a sample of questionnaire replies to see if respondents were interpreting items in the way intended. Alternatively, a questionnaire might be used in the first instance, followed by qualitative techniques on a sample as a check and to fill out certain features of the questionnaire replies. Interaction among techniques in this way is typical of qualitative research.

The C Programming Language And Its History

The C Programming Language And Its History Introduction In this Assignment, I shall be going through the stages and milestones, which lead to the development of two successful programming languages, C++ and Java. The programming language C influenced greatly C++, and therefore I felt it was necessary to delve deeply in this programming language as well. This assignment also includes the decisions taken by their respective creators and the reasoning behind them. The C Programming Language Between 1969 and 1973, the programming language C was under development at Bell Labs, by Dennis Ritchie. [1] During the same period, the operating system UNIX was under development as well.[1] In this section, I make most of my references to texts written by Dennis Ritchie himself in the book â€Å"History of Programming Languages†.[2] Prehistory Before C, during the late 60s, Bell Labs were passing through difficult times, mainly due to the fact that the development of the Multics project was halted because the beneficial use of the GE-645 Multics machine would not be available on time and would be too costly.[4] However, during and after the disposal of the machine, an â€Å"informal team†, lead by Ken Thompson, began to research and develop other alternatives.[4] Ken Thompson aimed in constructing a comfortable work environment by using any resources available to him.[4] His design involved implementing some similar ideas of Multics, such as â€Å"an explicit notion of a process as a locus of control, a tree-structured file system, a command interpreter as a user-level program, simple representation of text files, and generalized access to devices.†[4] However, Ken Thompson also excluded other certain aspects, including â€Å"unified access to memory and to files†.[4] Furthermore, instead of using PL/I which was the implementation language of Multics, Thompson and his team used another programming language known as BCPL.[4] Just like PL/I, BCPL was also a high-level language; a great advantage which Thompson did not want to let go due to its clarity and simplicity, unlike assembly language.[4] The B Programming Language In 1968, Ken Thompson was faced with a problem with the PDP-7, a machine for which he had no compatible software available.[4] Ken Thompson then created his own PDP-7 assembler, but it was in 1969, that Doug Mcllroy created the first high-level language for the system.[4] This language was an adaptation of the programming language known as TMG, which was created for the PDP-7 by R. M. McClure.[4] Dennis Ritchie describes TMG as â€Å"a language for writing compilers (more generally, TransMoGrifiers) in a top-down, recursive-descent style that combines context-free syntax notation with procedural elements†.[4] TMG had been used to create the compiler of PLI for Multics.[4] Ken Thompson then felt it was necessary for UNIX to have its own system programming language.[4] After a reluctant effort to use FORTRAN, Thompson later designed a new programming language named B.[4] The B programming language was developed mainly based on BCPL.[4] Moreover, Dennis Ritchie describes B as â⠂¬Å"BCPL squeezed into 8K bytes of memory and filtered through Thompsons brain†.[4] He then mentions that most probably, its name came about by representing a â€Å"contraction† of BCPL.[4] However, he might have chosen it as a dedication to his wife Bonnie.[4] Development was first completed by creating a TMG version of B, where Thompson then rewrote B in itself.[6] Dennis Ritchie recalls that during this stage of development, Ken Thompson found the memory limitation to be a great challenge, as â€Å"each language addition inflated the compiler to barely fit†.[6] However, each re-write, due to the beneficial feature, â€Å"reduced its size†.[6] Dennis Ritchie continues by mentioning an example.[6] He stated that, originally coming from ALGOL 60, B generalized assignment operators such that x =+ y was used to add x to y.[6] The operator was then corrected to spell x += y back in 1976.[6] Thompson was more innovative as he created new operators such as ++ and to increment and decrement.[6] The position of these operators, written as postfix or prefix, would determine whether the change in value would â€Å"occur before or after noting the value of the operand†.[6] Instead of producing machine code, the PDP-7s B compiler generated â€Å"threaded code†, in which the compilers output was made up â€Å"of a sequence of addresses of code fragments that perform the elementary operations†.[6] In the case for B, these operations worked on a straightforward stack.[6] However, due to the fact the PDP-7 machine was too small and slow, not much was written using B, â€Å"except for B itself†.[6] It only served them for experimental use. Re-writing UNIX on this machine proved to be too much of an expensive step.[6] Furthermore, Dennis Ritchie reports that at a stage, Ken Thompson expressed the â€Å"address space crunch by offering a virtual B† which made it possible for the interpreted program to take up more than 8k bytes.[6] This was done by â€Å"paging the code and data within the interpreter†.[6] However, it was then concluded that it would not be feasible enough and would result in being too slow â€Å"for the common utilities†.[6] Despite all this, some utilities were still written in B, such as an early version of the variable precision calculator known as dc.[6] Around this time, Dennis Ritchie also recalls working on an â€Å"ambitious† project, which mainly involved creating a genuine cross-compiler capable translating B to GE-635 machine instruction instead of thread code.[6] Dennis Ritchie then comments that this task was only possible due to the practicality and ease of the B language.[6] The Unix project had proven itself so well, that they managed to get a PDP-11 at Bell Labs.[6] By using the â€Å"the threaded technique† in order to run programs written in B on this machine, it was only necessary to write â€Å"the code fragments for the operators, and a simple assembler† in which the latter, Dennis Ritchie created himself.[6] The â€Å"first interesting program† to be tested on the PDP-11, before any operating system software, was dc.[6] Furthermore, around the same time, Ken Thompson managed to record the â€Å"UNIX kernel†, along with some simple commands written in PDP-11 assembly language.[6] Later in his paper, Dennis Ritchie mentions that apart from Bs advantage regarding its simplicity, it also had its problems mainly related to the PDP-11.[7] He states that the machines, on which Bell Labs initially used BCPL and also B, were â€Å"word-addressed†.[7] Furthermore, he continues by stating that these languages only handled one single data type, known as the â€Å"cell†, which would simply be â€Å"equated with the hardware machine word†.[7] However, with the introduction of the PDP-11, a manifold of â€Å"inadequacies of Bs semantic model† were clearly visible, one of which was that its character-handling mechanisms tracking back to few changes from BCPL, were incompetent.[7] For instance, Dennis Ritchie mentions that â€Å"using library procedures to spread packed strings into individual cells and then repack, or to access and replace individual characters† did feel strange and at times â€Å"even silly†, on a machine based on bytes.[7] Despite that the first model of the PDP-11 was not capable of calculating floating-point arithmetic, the producer did affirm that this feature would be available shortly.[7] By defining special operators, floating-point operators were added to BCPL in their Multics and GCOS compilers.[7] However, these operators were only possible on certain machines where â€Å"a single word was large enough to contain a floating-point number† and therefore could not be used on the 16-it PDP-11.[7] Another inadequacy was that B and BCPL suffered from overhead due to pointers.[7] This was because the languages basis, â€Å"by defining a pointer as an index in an array of words†, restricted pointers to be represented as â€Å"word indices†.[7] For each pointer reference, it generated â€Å"a run-time scale conversion† from the pointer to the corresponding byte address intended by the hardware.[7] Due to all of these reasons, Dennis Ritchie realised that it was necessary to develop a â€Å"typing scheme† to be able to handle characters and byte addressing, and also be prepared to work with the â€Å"coming floating-point hardware†.[7] At first, type safety and interface checking was not considered to be vital and therefore were introduced at a later date.[7] Besides the issues with the B language, B compilers threaded-code technique made programs run slower than the same programs written in assembly language.[7] NB and C In 1971, Dennis Ritchie started to expand the B language and called â€Å"the slightly extended language NB, for new B†.[7] Dennis Ritchie also states that since NB was used for a very short period, no documentation was done.[8] He continues by mentioning that he added a character type and also developed its compiler to produce PDP-11 machine code instructions.[8] Therefore, the compiler was capable of converting programs fast and small enough to contest with assembly language.[8] All in all, NB offered the simple types ‘int and ‘char, arrays of them, and also pointers to them.[8] The semantics of arrays found in B and BCPL stayed the same.[8] Furthermore, inside procedures, the language interpreted pointers and array variables to be identical.[8] Ritchie explains that â€Å"a pointer declaration created a cell differing from an array declaration only in that the programmer was expected to assign a referent, instead of letting the compiler allocate the space and i nitialise the cell†.[8] The values that were held in cells, linked by â€Å"array and pointer names†, were bytes of machine addresses relating to their respective memory location.[8] This was beneficial, as an â€Å"indirection† through a pointer required no â€Å"run-time overhead† to form the pointer from a word to â€Å"byte offset†.[8] However, the machine code for â€Å"array subscripting† and â€Å"pointer arithmetic† was dependant on the actual type of the array or pointer.[8] Dennis Ritchie states that although these semantics made it very easy to transition from B, problems eventually began cropping up mainly when he tried to â€Å"extend the type notation†.[8] He continues by explaining his difficulty in implementing â€Å"structured (record) types†.[8] At first, it seemed structures should link correspondingly onto memory in the machine.[8] However, the major issue was that for a structure containing an array, there was no ideal location to store the pointer containing the base of the array, or a practical way to initialise it. [8] The goal of Dennis Ritchie was that a structure would not just â€Å"characterise† an abstract object but also â€Å"describe a collection of bits that might be read from a directory†.[8] He describes the solution in achieving this goal as â€Å"the crucial jump in the evolutionary chain between type-less BCPL and typed C†.[8] Rather then having a â€Å"materialization of the pointer† located in memory, the pointer would be created only when the array name is refereed to in an expression.[8] Moreover, values of type array, once mentioned in an expression, would change its values to pointers to direct to the objects making up the array.[8] Despite the fact that the semantics of this new language had shiftily changed, most code written in B could still be used. Furthermore, this language also differed from its predecessors as it offered a â€Å"comprehensive type structure† and â€Å"expression in the syntax of declaration†.[8] After creating the â€Å"type system, the associated syntax, and the compiler†, Dennis Ritchie believed that this language deserved its own name, as when compared to NB, they were very distinctive.[8] Therefore, he called the programming Language C, â€Å" leaving open the question whether the name represented a progression through the alphabet or through the letters in BCPL†.[8] UNIX benefited greatly due to C. It made improving and maintaining UNIX very easy for any programmer who had an understanding of C. [1] Furthermore, it also made UNIX easily portable for newly developed computers. [1] This is mainly because it was unnecessary to convert the operating system to assemble language manually, but only required a C assembly compiler for that particular machine. [1] This compiler translates the code into machine code that the device understands. [1] C has gained a huge amount of success over the years and is still presently used in development. It is mainly known for its fast speed. [1] The C++ Programming Language The book â€Å"History of Programming Languages† also contains a paper written by Bjarne Stroustrup, the creator of C++.[9] In this paper, he narrates the history of the C++ programming language, focusing more on the ideas, limitation and â€Å"people that shaped the language†.[9] Prehistory More or less, Stroustrup begins his paper by stating that C++ was based on an â€Å"earlier version† of a programming language known as C with Classes.[10] However, before going into further detail, he begins discussing the prehistory of all this.[10] At Cambridge University, whilst working on his Ph.D that dealt with the study of different methods regarding the organization of software for a distributed system, Stroustrup focused on developing software â€Å"out of well-delimited modules† and also created experimental simulator â€Å"tool† in order to simulate â€Å"software running on a distributed system†.[10] This first version of the simulator was developed in Simula and ran on the Universitys IBM 360/165 mainframe.[10] It was very beneficial for Bjarne Stroustrup to use Simula, stating that: â€Å"the features of Simula were almost ideal for the purpose and I was particularly impressed by the way the concepts of the language helped me think about the problems in my application†.[10] Particularly, the behaviour of classes allowed Stroustrup to link directly the application of his ideas to the language constructs easily, especially due to the fact that classes in Simula are able to behave as co-routines.[10] He states that the use of class hierarchies enabled him to declare â€Å"variants of application level concepts†.[10] He continues by explaining further, through an example, that different types could be described as classes deriving from other classes.[10] The following are his exact words: â€Å"For example, different types of computers could be expressed as classes derived from class computer and different types of intermodule communication mechanisms could be expressed as class es derived from class IPC†.[10] Other benefits of Simula were its type scheme and the ability to detect type errors through its compiler.[10] The detection of a type error was either caused by some â€Å"silly† mistake, or due to some â€Å"conceptual flaw† in the design, in which both cases, especially the latter, helped Stroustrup greatly.[10] He had not experienced such beneficial use with other â€Å"more primitive strong type systems†.[10] Furthermore, referring to his simulator, when the program increased in size, due to Simulas class, co-routine and precise type checking mechanisms, flaws and errors would not grow alongside.[10] On the other hand, the implementation of Simula did not â€Å"scale in the same way† and nearly resulted in creating a disastrous program.[10] Stroustrup concluded that Simula was ideal for writing small programs but suffered â€Å"inherently† for larger ones due to its poor run-time performance characteristics.[10] Today, Simula implementations have improved greatly, but at that time, in order to avoid terminating the project, Stroustrup rewrote the simulator in BCPL.[10] He found programming in BCPL a very â€Å"horrible† experience, mainly due to its lack of type checking and run-time help.[10] However, once the simulator was developed, the program ran competitively fast.[10] Once he graduated from Cambridge, Bjarne Stroustrup promised himself that he would never attempt to solve a problem with those impractical tools as he had â€Å"suffered while designing and implementing the simulator†.[10] However he did define what is a â€Å"suitable tool† for writing system programs, which was highly significant when he was developing C++. [10] In Stroustrups eyes, a â€Å"suitable tool† involved the following characteristics.[10] Firstly, it would have Simulas support for program organisation and thus include classes, the ability to form class hierarchies, concurrency mechanisms, and a good type-checking scheme relating to classes.[10] Secondly, it must also be capable of producing programs possessing similar speed as to BCPL programs, and also allow the combination of independently compiled units into a program.[10] Lastly, it must allow the ability to create highly portable implementations.[10] C with Classes The undertaking, which eventually lead to developing C++, began in 1979, when Bjarne Stroustrup tried to understand the UNIX kernel, in order to find out the limit that could be distributed over a network of computer via a local area network (LAN).[11] This work took place in the Computer Science Research Center of Bell Laboratories.[11] With little time, Stroustrup faced two sub-problems, namely, â€Å"how to analyse the network traffic that would result from the kernel distribution and how to modularize the kernel†.[11] They both required a way to describe the model structure of a complicated system and the communication trends of the modules, issues extremely similar to the kind that Stroustrup was eager to never have to face again without the suitable tools.[11] Therefore, by referring to the criteria he had stated upon leaving Cambridge, Bjarne Stroustrup began to develop his own suitable tool.[11] By October of 1979, he had a preprocessor called Cpre. [11] Cpre was able to add â€Å"Simula-like classes to C†, and in March of 1980 this processor had been upgraded to actually support one â€Å"real project and several experiments†.[11] Later that year, between April and October, Stroustrup mentions that he let go of the ideal of â€Å"thinking about a tool† but rather began â€Å"thinking about a language†, to develop what is known as C with Classes.[11] However, initially, he did not consider C with Classes to be an independent language but just an expansion to C for â€Å"expressing modularity and concurrency†.[11] C with classes did not support primitives for expression.[11] Instead it included a mix of inheritance and offered a way to define class member functions with â€Å"special meanings† understood by the preprocessor, which was used to develop the library that handled the required â€Å"styles† of concurrency. Stroustrup emphasises on the word â€Å"styles† and that it is written in plural.[11] He found it vital that numerous notations of concurrency are able to be expressed in the language.[11] Backed by colleagues, other C++ users and the C++ standards committee, to this day he still believes that this was the right decision.[11] He then continues on this topic by stating that there in â€Å"no one dominant model for concurrency support†, and making use of a library or a special purpose extension for support on a particular form of concurrency would not limit others in using different forms.[11] Therefore, â€Å"the language provided general mechanisms for organising programs rather than support for specific application areas†.[11] It was not only in this instance that Bjarne Stroustrup did not force programmers to use a particular style.[11] C is capable of computing numerous low-level operations, such as bit manipulation and choosing between different sizes of integers.[11] Furthermore, although C++ systematically eliminates the need to use such low-level operators due to safety, they are still available for programmers to use, as Bjarne Stroustrup did not wish to restrict them in any way.[11] In fact, quoting his exact words, he states â€Å"I strongly felt then, as I still do, that there is no one right way of writing every program, and a language designer has no business trying to force programmers to use a particular style.[11] The language designer does, on the other hand, have an obligation to encourage and support a variety of styles and practices that have proven effective and to provide language features and tools to help programmers avoid the well known traps and pitfalls†.[11] Bjarne Stroustrup continues his paper by explaining further the features available to C with class, a language considered to be a stepping stone in creating C++.[11] C with Classes does not differ greatly compared to C.[11] Due to the fact that a preprocessor was used to implement C with Classes, the language differs only in the newly added features.[11] He lists these features which are shown as below. Note that the last three features were implemented in 1981, whilst the others were implemented one year earlier.[11] â€Å"classes†[11] â€Å"derived classes†[11] â€Å"public/private access control†[11] â€Å"constructors and destructors†[11] â€Å"call and Return functions†[11] â€Å"friend Classes†[11] â€Å"type Checking and Conversion of Function arguments†[11] â€Å"inline functions†[11] â€Å"default arguments†[11] â€Å"overloading of the assignment operator†[11] One of the major features offered by C with Classes was the idea of classes.[12] Stroustrup describes a class as a â€Å"user-defined data type†, meaning that it is a custom data type created by the programmer.[12] He continues by stating that â€Å"a class specifies the type of the class members that define the representation of a variable of the type, specifies the set of operations that manipulate such objects and specifies the access users have to these members†.[12] In other words, it simply defines the attributes and methods of a data type, including their access rights.[12] At that time, Simula did not support local or global variables of class types, and therefore objects of classes had to be â€Å"allocated on the free store using the new operator†.[12] After developing his simulator earlier in Cambridge, he considered Simulas lack of support on variables of class types as a â€Å"major source of inefficiency† at run-time.[12] Moreover, after some time, Karel Babcisky, who worked at the Norwegian Computer Centre, published information on â€Å"Simula run-time performance† that backed Stroustrups thinking. For this reason, Stroustrup wanted to support local and global variables of class types.[12] The first version of C with Classes did not support â€Å"Inline Functions†, and therefore was not initially advantageous of the languages representation. Stroustrup, in his book, â€Å"The C++ Programming Language†, describes an inline specifier on a function as a â€Å"hint† to the compiler that it should try to create code for a call.[5] He introduced inline functions to avoid programmers â€Å"crossing a protection barrier† that otherwise would result in not allowing the classes to be used hide representation.[12] Another concept, which Stroustrup thought about deeply, was the linkage model. Stroustrup starts explaining this by stating that to a certain extent, the way compiled programs might link to one another, â€Å"determines the features the language can provide†.[12] At the time of implementing C with Classes and C++, he had taken certain decisions regarding this issue. Firstly, that â€Å"separate compilation should be possible with traditional C/FORTRAN UNIX/DOS style linkers†.[12] Secondly, type safety should be checked on linkages.[12] Thirdly, it is not necessary for a linkage to need some sort of database, but a database could be beneficial in order to straighten the intended implementation.[12] Lastly, â€Å"linkage to program fragments written in other languages such as C, assembler and FORTRAN should be easy and efficient†.[12] Bjarne Stroustrup also added static types to his language implementation.[12] By his experience with Simula and ALGOL 68, he considered this to be essential in supporting static types.[12] The only difficulty for him was how to implement it.[12] In order not to break C code, Stroustrup decided that he would allow the â€Å"call of an undeclared function† and not test type safety on such â€Å"undeclared functions†.[12] However, this was a gaping hole in the type system and a great effort was made to lessen the problems relating to this issue.[12] C with Classes had lost the capability to detect run-time errors caused by â€Å"simple type errors†.[12] Due to the fact that most programmers that worked with C were reliable on type checks available, finding simple errors was tedious when programming in C with Classes.[12] Thus, a great demand arose to strengthen C with Classs type system.[12] Eventually, in C++ the issue had been solved by â€Å"making a call of an undeclared function illegal†.[12] Derived classes were also another concept which Stroustrup implemented.[14] However, the C with Classes language did not support Simulas concept of virtual function until later with the introduction of C++.[14] Similar to Simulas prefix class notion and Smalltalks subclass concept, C++ also supported derived classes.[14] However, Stroustrup gave the names â€Å"derived class† and â€Å"base class†, mainly due to the fact that he, along with others, had difficulty in recalling what was â€Å"sub† and what was â€Å"super†.[14] Furthermore, a number of people believed it to be â€Å"counterintuitive† as a subclass usually â€Å"has more inform than its superclass†.[14] Although there was no support of virtual functions within C with Classes, derived classes were beneficial for creating new data structures based on older ones and linking operations with the resulting types.[14] However, programmers could have simply used an object of a derived c lass and consider its base class as â€Å"implementation details†.[14] Towards the middle of his paper, Stroustrup mentions the reasons why he chose the programming language C to extend on, rather than Pascal.[13] Although he points out that C is not the â€Å"cleanest language ever designed nor the easiest to use†, he selected C due to its flexibility, efficiency, availability and portability.[13] C++ Between 1982 and 1984, Stroustrup developed the popular programming language C++. Initially known as C84, it was later changed to C++ because C84 was described by Stroustrup as â€Å"ugly† and â€Å"institutional†. Compared to C with Classes, C++ includes major upgrades and new features. Listed by Stroustrup, these major additions include: â€Å"Virtual functions†[15] â€Å"Function name and operator overloading†[15] â€Å"References†[15] â€Å"Constants (const)†[15] â€Å"User-controlled free-store memory control†[15] â€Å"Improved type checking†[15] The ability to overload an operator was in demand by many.[16] Stroustrup too liked the concept, and to him, â€Å"Operator overloading looked neat.[16] Although, through his experience of ALGOL 68, he had an idea on how overloading â€Å"could be made to work†, at first he was â€Å"reluctant†, to add it to C++.[16] The reason for this was that Overloading was known to be hard to implement and therefore resulted in compilers increasing in size.[16] It was also known to be â€Å"inherently inefficient† and made code â€Å"incomprehensible†.[16] However, if this reputation proved to be incorrect, Bjarne Stroustrup, at that time, admitted that overloading would solve a lot of C++ user problems.[16] He was convinced that overloading would not result in inherent inefficiency.[16] Furthermore, he mentions that â€Å"overloading makes code obscure† and it would make their code appear â€Å"cleaner†.[16] He also observed the way Overloading would w ork with classes, and he prepared manual papers to show that the added complexity would not pose any problems.[16] Due to all these reasons, in addition to two hours of work in implementing overloading in C front for demonstrations, Stroustrup had convinced himself to include overloading to C ++.[16] Among other features, the concept of referencing was added to C++.[16] References were initially added to support overloading.[16] C passed arguments by value.[16] If passing an object by value would result in inefficiency, the programmer is able to pass a pointer.[16] However, overloading operators did not permit this strategy.[16] Therefore, due to the fact that C ++ supports both pointers and references, it does not need means for â€Å"distinguishing operations on the reference itself from operations on the object referred to†.[16] From the initial version of C ++ to the C++ currently available today, a lot of updates and versions were released.[17] Version 2.0 was a great improvement.[17] Amongst other features, it mainly introduced abstract classes and multiple inheritance.[17] Multiple inheritance allows users to have more than one direct base class.[17] However, Stroustrup did admit that adding multiple inheritance in version 2.0 was a mistake, as he felt that this concept was less important than adding â€Å"parametrized types†.[17] Parametrized types were later added in version 3.0.[17] The Java Programming Language The Java Programming Language was developed by a team Sun Microsystems engineers, led by James Gosling[3]. The project started in 1991 and was released in 1995.[3] Prehistory Back in the late 1970s, Bill Joy, the man who many still believe was the first to come up with the â€Å"idea of a programming language that later became Java†, wanted to create a language that would consist of the best features of MESA and C.[3] Having attempted to re-write UNIX in 1980, he realised that C++ was â€Å"inadequate† to accomplish this task.[3] He wanted a much more powerful tool that is able to write short and effective programs. [3]This longing started to become a reality in 1991, when Sun Microsystems began to develop a language induced by Joys idea.[3] The Suns project was initially known as the â€Å"Stealth Project† named by Scott McNealy.[3] It was during January of that year, when James Gosling, Mike Sheradin, Patrick Naughton and Bill Joy, along with others, organized a meeting in Aspen Colorado, to discuss their ideas for this project.[3] The main aim of the Stealth Project was to conduct research in the area of computers use in the  "consumer electronics market.[3] The major objective was to create a â€Å"smart† consumer electronic device that would accept instructions from a â€Å"handheld-romote-control-like device†.[3] In Goslings words, he states that â€Å"the goal was †¦ to build a system that would let us do a large, distributed, heterogeneous network of consumer electronic devices all talking to each-other†.[3] The Stealth Project later came to be known as the Green Project.[3] The work that was done by the team was divided as follows: Mike Sheradin worked on business development, Patrick Naughton focused mainly on the graphics system, whilst James Gosling took the task of finding the proper language to use for the project. [3]Before joining Sun in 1984, James Gosling created â€Å"the commercially unsuccessful NeWs windowing system as well as GOSMACS†.[3] As described by the site, GOSMACS was â€Å"a C language implementation of GNU EMACS.[3] Oak Programming Language The language James Gosling initially had chosen to use for Green Project was C++.[3] However, after some time working on it, he found it inadequate for the required task.[3] Therefore, he began adding extensions and changes to C++, which were described as the first building blocks in developing an independent language that would fit ideally to achieve the projects objectives.[3] Gosling named the language â€Å"Oak†, while he was staring at an oak tree though his office window.[3] However, some time after, the name was abolished mainly due to the fact that the name had already been in use for another programming language.[3] In fact Gosling stated that â€Å"the Java development team discovered that Oak was the name of a programming language that predated Suns language, so another name had to be chosen†.[3] It was later called Java. Gosling recounted that â€Å"its surprisingly difficult to find a good n

Workforce Planning

Workforce Planning Scenario: Thinking of brands with a prestige; Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessy or LVMH is going to come in many peoples thoughts straight away. LVMH is a business organisation involved in many areas and in many countries specialized in luxury goods. In this report, the researcher as a human resource consultant in LVMH, professional consultation on various aspects of HR planning and development is needed. Task 1: Objectives: What is Workforce Planning Workforce planning at global level Purpose of HR planning in LVMH A plan is a process of doing something and the way of doing it. It is the middle stage of current state of affairs and the future state of affairs. Whereas, workforce planning is the process of pointing out what kind of human resource organization needs, to fulfil its goals and objectives. It determines the skill, knowledge and experience required for a given job. Workforce planning helps: Control employee costs Assess talent needs Cost effectiveness of employees Efficiency of employees Assess human capital needs and risks. Optimum performance, knowledge in different cultural, being pro-active are few reasons for workforce planning internationally. Above all language and culture which also include religion, peoples beliefs and traditional practices; are often considered as a major issue here. HR is planned at global level to increase their knowledge, skill and experience in different working environments. Globalisation has become a strong and challenging task for all the organisations. Organisations are expanding globally facing new challenges every moment. To cope up with this situation organisation needs more workforces who have experience at global level. Globalisation always creates pressure for the organisation but it is also fruitful for the organisation at a longer term as well. Due to limited funds in this recession, LVMH plans human resource to do the same amount of work but with limited or fewer staff members. It makes replacement easy to fill with appropriate Ready to Move candidate. Filling vacancies has always been very critical as lack of knowledge about the specific work and management and also lack of experience and competencies apply. HR planning in LVMH gives a clear picture of the expenditures going to incur to train and develop their staff for the next suitable task. Rapid technological change and reduced communication costs have increased international production in LVMH. Workforce planning does not always mean recruitment process. Hence, the purpose of workforce planning in LVMH at global level is very clear. Getting hold on English language as well as some international languages. Develop talent in working on a totally different environment. External and internal factors need to consider while working at global level. The different strategies and management practice needs to undertake while working at global level. (1)LVMH believes that the best way to develop its employees is not by formal training but international vertical, horizontal and geographical mobility within the organisation; LVMH case study. LVMH believes in practical training rather than theoretical approach, which can only be done in moving workforce across the globe. The senior employees get their chance first in global mobility. HR directors are the one who decides the potential candidate who is Ready to Move. Task 2: Objectives: What is International Recruitment Advantages of International Recruitment International Recruitment, is the most important HR function within LVMH. Recruitment is the most important aspect of human resource management. Whereas, International Recruitment means hiring or recruiting someone to work in the organisation at a global level. That person will have to be competent of international experience, knowledge and skill. He will have to be strong enough to face the global challenges and can lead the organisation in the global market. International recruitment process often depends on country of operation and is always very difficult to carry on. Language has always been a major drawback in international recruitment. As for company like LVMH they only recruit individual who can speak fluent English and also at least three different international languages to reduce their cost of training employees and increase staff efficiency in language point of view. International recruitment has various benefits; Experience: Person will be experienced enough to deal with international situation. Company can also be benefitted from the experience he can share. Efficiency: They will be efficient in understanding organisations structure and working methods; resulting time saving. Cost Effectiveness: Additional training in managing organisations globally or training in different languages is not required; thus saving staff training expenses. Cheap recruitment: Recruitment process is often cheap from hiring someone with international knowledge or experience, who would be able to manage the company well, rather than hiring employee from the home country. Savings in the salaries will be derived in this process. Culture: Knowledge in different culture of people can be studied and often counted as beneficial for the company. Corporate strategy of the business can be changed for greater good in order to maintain companys mission and achieve goals faster. Though LVMH is based in Paris, they are a global giant and is spread globally across three continent and among 58 countries worldwide. Their business has been divided into five different world zone across the globe which made international recruitment essential. The international recruitment process of LVMH benefits from all the advantages of international recruitment. Employees are moved globally to maintain the companys standards everywhere the same with its goal to fulfil and also their corporate mission (2)to represent the most refined qualities of western products around the world, LVMH group mission. As for LVMH international recruitment process is a very difficult HR functions as well. Often it is hard to find someone who is the right person, for a right task to perform in the right place of work. Their different cultural view make the company even hard to get benefitted from their involvement in planning and implementation of strategies. Recruitment is kind of a long term investment not in terms of asset but in terms of quality work to lead the company further to its values and mission. Thus it can be supported that international recruitment is a significant step in HR management within LVMH. Task 3: Objectives: What is international mobility Need for international mobility Importance of international mobility in LVMH International mobility means employee who are professional in any field of that company work in order to satisfy corporate and client needs in a different working area than its own. Often employees are transferred from one place to another around the world to make the company more virtual and certainly more widespread in the future. The faster growth of globalisation and the pressure to compete with its competitors, international mobility now take place in most of the big companies. International mobility is a combination of the points such as: Talent management: This is the process of selecting candidate, setting their objectives and identifying their individual role in retention strategies and repatriation planning. Reward aspects: This is the process of fixing base compensation and benefits; and their expatriate policy of a candidate. Procedural aspects: This consists of risk management which is nothing but immigration requirements and contractual arrangements; cost management and administering the international mobility process. Situations vary from company to company and with its HR policy to what extent international mobility is required. Massive company like LVMH, who performs around the world, international mobility also take place due to seasonal shortage of workforce in any particular country. Common holiday appeal is also a well known factor; as most employees want holiday during the summer school holiday period or in the Christmas time. During these periods of time, it is often wise for LVMH to transfer or appoint professionals in the same field but from different area into those places. This is only possible for internationally mobile workforce that a person in France can go for a summer holiday in July and in his place a person from Australia can join work, where he might need holiday in his summer time which is in December. Too many or too less professionals always create conflict in achieving tasks. Thus international mobility gives a chance to balance things accordingly. Due to recent fall in many luxury companies; LVMH is in lack of confidence in hiring new employee to follow new strategies. Rather they are into developing their market following their previous own strategies performed by existing employees which were proven to a success earlier. In this point financial factor is also a main problem as they are less likely to afford any new mistakes. Many people want to migrate to a different country to work. Thus companies face problems in finding themselves a skilled worker. A company like LVMH gives them the chance to migrate. However after certain time people want to come back to their home country to settle down which is also possible for employees in LVMH as international mobility is not always undertaken. People migrate for increased salary which might be far less to LVMH. A manager in the UK, and a manager in India, who are performing the same task same hours a week might have a huge difference among their salaries. In this way it is a savings for the company to achieve such employees. In todays crisis, it is difficult for the companies to find a good employee; therefore, nobody wants to leave their professionals. Therefore international mobility is a must for the company to run their business. For LVMH to succeed in its competitive market, they need to recruit internationally mobile employees to reach their target and objectives to fill their expected corporate goals. Task 4: Objectives: Career development and expatriate compensation scheme Benefits to the managers of LVMH from the scheme Benefits to LVMH from the scheme (3)The international mobility policy is part of a career development scheme, LVMH case study. LVMH has exciting career development prospects; as it does not provide high compensation levels to its expatriates, since the company is cutting its cost to be more cost efficient. Its vision is not to attract its employees by economic incentives, though LVMH pay a very high rate of salary. The employees receive their salaries according to the international standard rather than based on the country of work. LVMH also offer their employees the chance to perform their task with more freedom. Effectively employees get convinced to work outside from their home country due to various challenges he can undertake as well. The career development and expatriate compensation practice of LVMH is beneficial for both the company and its expatriates. As for its expatriates, the competitive raise in the salary after each year or a specified time, motivates them. Their salary is based according to the percentage of their expenditure and also 30% savings to their salary money to send back home. Expatriate receives a relocation allowance which is equivalent to a month of their gross salary prior to the arrival in the new country of work. Expatriates receives additional benefits such as paid education for their children, paid home leaves, temporary housing for up to a month, and also last but not least loans for housing deposits or purchasing automobile. Employees would not have to worry about their cost of moving as it is covered by LVMH. Employees get paid holidays depending on their home countrys labour law. Depending on the personnel and their job title, some of them receive much generous home leave allowance like travelling in the first class instead of economy class. Their security benefits would always remain the same as their home country; where LVMH sometimes end up paying a double contribution in the social security. LVMH provides huge benefits for its internationally mobile expatriates in healthcare. LVMH provides health insurance to approximately 95% of its employees and their family in the same standard as they can get in their home country. Life insurance and disability protection also proves that the level of cover is highly reputable. As for the company, LVMH often calculate the salary of its expatriates based on the home country. This provides the cost effectiveness of the company. Internationally mobile expatriates are a kind of investment in longer term for the company as future profit will be achieved through the successful completion of any international assignments. The various benefits of international mobility for a company apply in LVMH too. Employees who are motivated and work internationally brings extensive skill and knowledge to the company. Since, employees do not work in same country for a longer time, thus their efficiency level remains at its full all the time. Task 5: Objectives: Problems in Career development through international mobility Strategic consultation for LVMH LVMH offers a competitive rate of benefits to all its expatriates in career development through international mobility. As it has been mentioned in the earlier tasks, LVMHs policies of attracting its expatriates are very much different and broad from the other companies. For providing many facilities to its internationally mobile expatriates, LVMH also get highly skilled international manager with many years of experience in working at a global level. Due to its competitive rate of benefit offered to its expatriates, employees often get greedy and expect more from the company which may result conflict with the companys mission and objectives. They might start requesting for an early or frequent transfer to different countries to be eligible for the benefits. Some under-developed or developing country staff might want himself to settle down in the developed countries for greater good. Some people get very excited of the various benefits they are going to receive and thus do not concentrate on working effectively and efficiently, leaving companys purpose for international mobility undone. It could be suggested that LVMH can make a change in its recruitment policy. Candidates should get the job via several assessments: They should fit for the job applied Their previous references should be assessed Their quality of the idea for the job should be measured They should be hired for a probation period to carry out a task Based on the task completed they could be made a permanent staff They would not be entitled for the benefits as a temporary staff Further recommendations could be advertising the vacancies in public Medias. People often get attracted when they hear about vacancies. Prior to selection, candidates should be briefed about the job and its rewards. Employees should sometimes get the chance to work in their home country as well. Task 6: Objectives: Advantages of international transfer policy How employees could be motivated The international transfer department of LVMH makes the policy for international transfer. The policy then followed by the HR Directors to transfer LVMHs employees at a global level. Due to the different standards made by the department, it is often very easy to pick people who are eligible for an international transfer. The various benefits could be: Has an unique standard to assess the candidates Is fair for all HR Director cannot separate anyone from the policy Based on the potentiality of the candidate Information flow and is harmonised Maintaining the standards in the international transfer policy, the international transfer department refer LVMHs expatriates by gathering information about them from its wide international networks. Based on the references and recommendations to the HR Directors; the policy work as a helpful benchmark. International transfer policy strengthens the company by assisting companys HR teams. Employees can be motivated as it is a fair policy. Constant rise in international assignments need more international employees. Various benefits offered to the employees through international mobility are framed by the international transfer policy. It is an internal part of LVMHs management concept. (4)International transfer policy has a clear mandate to spread the groups key values which are preserving, autonomy and encouraging entrepreneurship; LVMH case study. It is a process of achieving future career development in LVMH. The mission and vision which are widely spread by the policy increase the level of motivations among the expatriates. Expansion in the policy could be developed due to the increased number of international transfers made. International transfer policy helps to achieve goals by motivating LVMHs expatriates to be effective in their task, and to complete it efficiently.